1 big thing: Powerful X-rays are opening up "impossible" science

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2. NASA's largest asteroid sample will land on Earth this weekend

3. Danger of hyped-up alien claims

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4. Worthy of your time

5. Something wondrous

Octahedral pink diamonds found in the Argyle diamond mine. Credit: Murray Rayner

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Send your feedback and ideas to me at alison@axios.com.

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Science

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Gather the facts on the latest scientific advances

Axios Science

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1 big thing: Finding the ocean's limits

2. The Moon renaissance is here

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3. AI could choke on its own exhaust

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Thanks for reading Axios Science. This edition is 1,740 words, about a 6½-minute read.

Big thanks to editor Laurin-Whitney Gottbrath, to Andrew Freedman for writing with me this week, to Natalie Peeples on the Axios Visuals team and to copy editor Carolyn DiPaolo.

1 big thing: AI speeds discovery — and could help to push frontier 

2. Volcanic eruption may be boosting global heat wave

3. Saturn's storms

This week's newsletter is 1,583 words, about a 6-minute read.

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Big thanks to Laurin-Whitney Gottbrath for editing and to Carolyn DiPaolo for copy editing this edition.

1 big thing: AI's language gap

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Part II: A culturally aware AI

3. Pumping oil like blood could cut energy costs

4. Something wondrous

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Thanks for reading Axios Science. This edition is 1,660 words, about a 6-minute read.

Big thanks to editor Scott Rosenberg, to Miriam Kramer for contributing, to Natalie Peeples on the Axios Visuals team and to copy editor Jay Bennett.

1 big thing: Searching for signs of life in alien atmospheres 

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2. No evidence of aliens

3. Inside Hurricane Lee

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Thanks for reading Axios Science. This edition is 1,688 words, about a 6-minute read.

Big thanks to editor Laurin-Whitney Gottbrath, to Miriam Kramer for contributing, to Natalie Peeples on the Axios Visuals team, and to copy editor Patricia Guadalupe.

National

Space

Axios Space

The atmospheres of planets beyond this solar system are coming into focus and helping scientists decide what constitutes evidence of life and where to look for it.

Why it matters: As increasingly sensitive telescopes and other tools study more exoplanets in search of signs of life, scientists are trying to hammer out a framework for determining — and communicating — if and when such extraordinary evidence is found.

"When there is a robust detection of life on another planet it will be insane," says Jessie Christiansen, an astrophysicist at the NASA Exoplanet Science Institute at the California Institute of Technology.

Driving the news: NASA scientists this week reported detecting carbon dioxide and methane and a lack of ammonia in the atmosphere of an exoplanet about 124 light years away from Earth, suggesting there could be an ocean of water on its surface.

They may have also detected dimethyl sulfide (DMS), a compound that on Earth is affiliated largely with life, but there is far less confidence in that result and more data is needed.

Scientists have put forth other possible signatures of life under certain conditions.

How it works: The James Webb Space Telescope studied light from K2-18 b's star as it passed through the exoplanet's atmosphere.

Different molecules in the atmosphere dim the starlight at different wavelengths that can be detected by JWST.

The planet orbits its star in the theoretical habitable zone, a distance at which liquid water could exist on a planet's surface. But K2-18 b is not an Earth-like planet.

It's more than eight times the size of Earth and a lot less dense. That and the presence of carbon dioxide and methane suggest it could be a Hycean exoplanet, a hypothetical world covered in oceans and shrouded in a thick atmosphere of hydrogen.

The big picture: JWST isn't sensitive enough to study Earth-like planets around Sun-like stars. But the planets it can study may help to narrow the search for habitable worlds.

The telescope is best suited for looking at the atmospheres of planets around red dwarf stars, which are smaller and cooler than our Sun. They are also the most plentiful type of stars in the galaxy. 

Scientists worry, however, that planets around these types of stars, even in their habitable zones, could be bombarded with solar flares that would make it difficult for the worlds to hold on to an atmosphere.

If planets around red dwarf stars can't retain an atmosphere, it will "really change the equation of how much habitable real estate there is in the galaxy," Christiansen says.

Between the lines: There is still a lot of space for people to speculate about the chemical signatures of life because there aren't ways to confirm them, Christiansen adds.

"One thing that feels consistent is the idea that atmospheres on planets that have life will probably be more complex than those that don't have life." 

That means life's fingerprint very likely won't be left with one molecule. And the planet's environment and evolution matter. 

"The context is essential because we don't know all of the configurations a purely lifeless planet can take on. We don't know the nature of the most common planet in the universe," says University of California, Riverside astrobiologist Eddie Schwieterman.

"[W]e're only just starting to understand the composition of those atmospheres and there is probably a suite of combinations of gases" that are signatures of life. 

The intrigue: A promising biosignature on one planet may not be a sign of life on another whose physical and chemical features might offer different, non-life-related ways to create that molecule.

"Compelling signs of life on our planet today around another planet may have nothing to do with life," says University of California, Riverside biogeochemistry professor Timothy Lyons. 

The chapter of a planet's history could also be a factor: methane, which is produced by several processes, may have been a potential biosignature for life on Earth during a 1-billion-year window but not in the rest of Earth's history when it was overshadowed by oxygen in the atmosphere or made from a reaction of sunlight and water, not microbes.

What's happening: Scientists are now trying to come up with a framework — basically a flow chart for confirming a discovery — that lays out what needs to be tested when one signature or another is spotted.

It's "likely that multiple measurements and approaches, spanning disciplines and missions, will be needed to make a convincing claim" about finding life, a group of researchers working on the standards wrote last year. "Life detection will therefore not be an instantaneous process, and it is unlikely to be unambiguous."

The framework is a systematic way of reporting a detection of life, Schwieterman says. It "acknowledges the various complexities and allows us to be honest with each other." 

Alien atmospheres are helping scientists search for life

Life's fingerprint may not be left with one molecule.

Exoplanets

The atmospheres of planets beyond this solar system are coming into focus and helping scientists decide what constitutes evidence of life and where to look for it.Why it matters: As increasingly sensitive telescopes and other tools study more exoplanets in search of signs of life, scientists are trying to hammer out a framework for determining — and communicating — if and when such extraordinary evidence is found.

A look at the scientific breakthroughs changing the world, explorations in space and in worlds beyond our own and the threats posed to us by our own planet, both out of our control and of our own making.

A run of alien-related news last week didn't present proof that extraterrestrial life exists. But it did reveal how distorted, misrepresented and hyped the search for life beyond Earth can become.

Why it matters: Unscientific claims of alien life and far-from-confirmed findings illustrate alien illiteracy that risks undermining the possible moment when life somewhere in the universe is discovered.

"There should be a lot of value assigned to that finding," says Eddie Schwieterman, an astrobiologist at the University of California, Riverside.

"The consequences are going to be very far-reaching for our civilization, both for science and culture."

Driving the news: A self-proclaimed "ufologist" presented what he claimed were "alien corpses" to Mexico's Congress last week.

Experts dismissed the claims and the researcher presented no hard evidence for his assertion. But it still spread far and wide on social media and in mainstream media in Mexico, the U.S. and beyond.

On Friday, NASA announced the first report from its UAP (unidentified anomalous phenomena) study team, saying the team hadn't found evidence that UAPs are extraterrestrial in origin but that the space agency would use their data to try to help illuminate more about what UFOs could be.

Earlier in the week, NASA scientists announced the James Webb Space Telescope had detected carbon dioxide and methane — and possibly a molecule closely associated with life on Earth — in the atmosphere of a planet 120 light years from Earth. The detection of dimethyl sulfide (DMS) was very weak but many latched on to the finding.

Details: Some of the news coverage and hype around these developments elicited eye rolls and sighs among scientists.

The gravity of finding life beyond Earth requires scientists "to put a lot of value on doing it right and having the correct procedures for reporting claims and being honest about the uncertainty," Schwieterman says.

He's part of a community-wide effort among researchers to create a framework and standards for detecting life.

What's happening: Alien conspiracy theories aren't new. But the internet, social media and now the arrival of generative AI are turbocharging dangerous narratives about extraterrestrial life, says Wasim Khaled, CEO and co-founder of Blackbird.AI, which helps organizations trace narratives that may cause reputational or financial harm and respond to them.

"Discussions around aliens are fueling a new era of disinformation in a world where it has become popular to erode trust in governments," he tells Axios. Claiming coverups is one way to reduce trust in government and "it is very easy because there is no irrefutable proof" that there isn't evidence of alien life, Khaled adds.

When an announcement happens (the Department of Defense releasing a report on UAPs, for example), conspiracy theories and narratives about government coverups are surfaced, "making that scientific finding nonscientific," he says. "The actual story that takes hold in the public can be really different."

The problem has two prongs, he says: People can "cherry pick findings and then people can run with it." And then there are paper mills that turn out fake scientific papers and flood the information space.

"Generative AI is making it worse" because the papers look more real than in the past. The technology is being used to create photos, images and "entire personas pushing a scientific finding that never happened," he says.

The intrigue: Schwieterman says he strongly believes the "first solid detection of life elsewhere will only be apparent in retrospect because of all of the uncertainties in detection and we're limited in the types of information we can collect remotely."

The enormity and excitement of the findings — which could be a gas in an atmosphere across the galaxy or an extinct microbe on Mars — could get lost in the noise and expectations set by previous claims and announcements.

"The saddest thought for me about my career is that if life is detected elsewhere, it will register as a whimper," says Sarah Rugheimer, a professor of astronomy at York University.

The bottom line: "There is a need for a greater sense of awareness of where we are in space and time," Schwieterman said. 

"I think if we had that there would be more critical thinking applied to UAP and these other extraordinary claims without dismissing the possibility of finding life elsewhere."

Editor's note: The spelling of Eddie Schwieterman's surname was corrected.

Hyped up alien claims risk undermining future ET discoveries

If alien life is ever confirmed, the public may not recognize how exciting that is.

Aliens

Supercontinent breakup pushed pink diamonds to Earth's surface

The missing ingredient could point to other caches of the valuable gems.

Pink diamonds found in the Argyle mine. Credit: Murray Rayner

Geology

The breakup of a supercontinent 1.3 billion years ago may have moved rare pink diamonds from the depths of Earth to the surface, researchers report.Why it matters: The key role of continent movements in producing pink diamonds could point to other caches of the valuable gems.

Media Trends

Axios Media Trends

A slew of podcasters are building massive followings and businesses online by exploring the human curiosity about living longer.

Why it matters: Enthusiasm for the topic has grown in recent months as streamers and celebrities elevate the field, which once was confined largely to niche podcasts and books.

What's happening: Longevity has long been a fantasy of wealthy entrepreneurs trying to invest their way into a breakthrough money hasn't been able to buy.

But the rise of direct-to-consumer media — podcasts, social platforms and streaming — has helped to bring those discussions to the masses.

Netflix last month debuted a new series, "Live to 100: Secrets of the Blue Zones," which chronicles unique communities around the world where people live extraordinarily long lives.

By the numbers: The global longevity and anti-aging market is projected to reach $183 billion by 2028, according to business intelligence firm Grand View Research.

How it works: A relatively small circle of longevity podcasters reinforce one another's reach. Their work then finds its way into the mainstream, feeding the public's insatiable appetite for content about living longer.

Case in point: The most successful longevity podcaster is Andrew Huberman, an associate professor of neurobiology at Stanford.

With over 10 million followers across social media, Huberman has become one of the most popular podcasters in the country. His show, Huberman Lab, consistently ranks in the top 10 most-listened-to podcasts in America, per Chartable.

Between the lines: Huberman often cites other longevity podcasters, including Peter Attia and David Sinclair, bolstering their followings and businesses.

Sinclair, Attia, and others have all made the New York Times bestseller list.

Some of the country's most popular podcasters, including Joe Rogan and Dax Shepard, also feature their work.

Reality check: Beyond commonly understood lifestyle practices — a healthy diet, consistent exercise, social interaction, adequate sleep — some scientists say there's not much out there that's proven to be effective in extending how long someone can live healthily.

"Once you get outside of that, there's not a lot that is crystal clear," said Matt Kaeberlein, a biologist at the University of Washington whose research focuses on aging.

But there's a lot that can be done to prevent people from getting sick in the first place, he said: "While life expectancy is plateauing in the U.S., health span is shrinking. Health care access is a problem. But even people with good health care are missing out on simple things that could be fixed by and large."

The focus on extreme longevity is misguided and can be a distraction from what is currently or soon to be available, he added: "If we can target the biology of aging and give one or two more decades of healthy life span, that is a huge deal."

What we're watching: Some longevity podcasters tend to hawk similar products and work with the same group of advertisers, including LMNT for hydration, Athletic Greens for nutrition and athlete-focused supplements from Momentous.

Wellness marketing schemes have long been a concern of the FTC, which issues fines for false commercialization, or misleading messages, in ads.

In April, the FTC warned nearly 700 marketing firms pushing over-the-counter drugs, homeopathic products, dietary supplements and functional foods that they could face civil penalties if they couldn't back up their product claims.

Inside the longevity industrial complex

Podcasts and online personalities are peddling tips on life extension.

Illustration of a hourglass with a DNA strand in place of the glass

Wellness

Media

A slew of podcasters are building massive followings and businesses online by exploring the human curiosity about living longer.Why it matters: Enthusiasm for the topic has grown in recent months as streamers and celebrities elevate the field, which once was confined largely to niche podcasts and books.

The U.S. faces a range of health care flashpoints — unaffordable drugs, opioids, vaping — as we debate whether to adopt universal care. For now, the Affordable Care Act is the law of the land, but Republicans want to issue it a final death blow.

Health

After a record economic expansion, the coronavirus pandemic sent the U.S. economy into a recession as unemployment soared to staggering heights. The country now faces urgent questions about how much stimulus is needed for reeling consumers and businesses, and what a recovery might look like.

Economy & Business

A new generation of powerful X-ray lasers is being aimed at some of nature's fastest — and most fundamental — processes to try to reveal the atomic intricacies that drive them.

Why it matters: The details of how atoms interact in chemical reactions and electrons behave in materials could help scientists learn how to better mimic nature's abilities and efficiencies — from the energy-generating reactions of plants to the unique properties of minerals that power electronics.

"We'll be able to do experiments that were impossible before," says Matthias Kling, a professor of photon science at Stanford University. 

"This type of information that you can get with laser-like X-rays, you just can't get by any other means."

Driving the news: The world's most powerful X-ray laser produced its first pulses last week.

The upgraded Linac Coherent Light Source (LCLS-II) X-ray free-electron laser (XFEL) at the SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory can generate almost one million X-ray flashes per second — almost 8,000 times more than its predecessor.

SLAC is run by Stanford University and funded by the Department of Energy. 

How it works: The instrument accelerates electrons to near the speed of light. The electrons are then oscillated, causing them to emit X-rays.

Those X-ray pulses can be focused onto tiny areas and produce high-resolution snapshots of molecules that can be strung together to create movies that show how molecules interact with one another.

LCLS-II uses superconductors cooled to 2 degrees Kelvin — colder than the temperature of outer space — to accelerate electrons along a 2-kilometer-long tunnel.

LCLS-II is currently producing soft "lower-energy" X-rays with plans to upgrade the instrument even more to produce hard X-rays. Hard X-rays have a wavelength on par with a bond between two atoms and can show details about bonds and the angles between atoms.

Zoom in: The reactions the X-rays can capture are happening in femtoseconds (one billionth of one millionth of a second) — or even attoseconds.

LCLS-II's predecessor was able to capture the contours of how an arrangement of molecules in plants changes as it splits water to form oxygen during photosynthesis.

The upgraded instrument could reveal important finer details about the other molecules that catalyze the photosynthetic reaction — for example, how the electrons on those catalysts move, says Kling, the director of science, research and development at the LCLS. These movements are key details for scientists trying to create artificial photosynthesis as an energy source.

The ability to produce so many pulses in a short time also allows scientists to study molecules that aren't stable for the long periods of time typically required to take enough images of them, he says.

High-powered X-rays can also be used to study the behavior of quantum materials whose properties defy classical physics descriptions, including graphene. Ultimately, X-ray science could help to invent new materials for electronic circuitry that currently depends on rare earth minerals. 

The big picture: There are several other high-energy X-ray lasers around the world, including the European XFEL, which has been operating since 2017, and China's Shanghai High Repetition Rate XFEL and Extreme Light Facility, which is currently being built.

Other groups are taking a different tack and trying to make ultra-fast X-ray sources smaller, less expensive and more accessible. 

Earlier this year, Arizona State University's compact X-ray light source (CXLS) produced its first X-rays. The device is part of a larger project called the compact X-ray free-electron laser, or CXFEL.

"The goal is to get these machines into more places," including universities, semiconductor fabrication plants and hospitals, says Sam Teitelbaum, a condensed matter physicist at ASU who is working on the design and building of the CXFEL. 

Details: ASU's instruments don't produce as many pulses per second as LCLS and instead focus on better controlling the ones they do generate, Teitelbaum says. It is well-suited for looking at magnetic materials and, because of the specific way it diffracts light, can be used to watch electrons move. 

One potential application for the much smaller device — it will be about 10 meters long — is measuring the diffraction of light in different layers of semiconductor chips, a measurement used to assess a chip's performance. The instrument could allow an in-house measurement that typically involves sending a chip off to a synchrotron.

Between the lines: Existing tools could measure only pure, stable molecules  — which don't reflect the messiness of nature.

With the new instruments, "we can see living things the way they wiggle and jiggle in our bodies in real time and the way [materials] wiggle and jiggle in a real device," Teitelbaum says.

Instead of eliminating the messiness, scientists can now consider its importance.

The bottom line: "X-ray light sources allow us to have X-ray vision into the microscopic world," Kling says.

Powerful X-rays are opening up "impossible" science

Powerful X-ray lasers are being aimed at some of nature's fastest — and most fundamental — processes.

Physics

A new generation of powerful X-ray lasers is being aimed at some of nature&#x27;s fastest — and most fundamental — <a class="gtmContentClick" data-vars-link-text="processes" data-vars-click-url="https://www.axios.com/2021/07/22/ai-deepmind-protein-folding-database" data-vars-content-id="ec2da50d-57af-422a-a781-f61000e4185c" data-vars-headline="Powerful X-rays are opening up &quot;impossible&quot; science" data-vars-event-category="story" data-vars-sub-category="story" data-vars-item="in_content_link" href="https://www.axios.com/2021/07/22/ai-deepmind-protein-folding-database" target="_self">processes</a> to try to reveal the atomic intricacies that drive them.Why it matters: The details of how atoms interact in chemical reactions and electrons behave in materials could help scientists learn how to better mimic nature&#x27;s abilities and efficiencies — from the energy-generating reactions of plants to the unique properties of minerals that power electronics.

Alison Snyder

Stories

Inside the longevity industrial complex

Supercontinent breakup pushed pink diamonds to Earth's surface

Powerful X-rays are opening up "impossible" science

Hyped up alien claims risk undermining future ET discoveries

Alien atmospheres are helping scientists search for life

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Axios Science: X-ray vision

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Axios Science: AI's language gap

Axios Science: 🌊 Ocean resilience

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